Phallus eversion sexing in Phrynops geoffroanus (Testudines: Chelidae): a new non-invasive approach / Sexagem por eversão do falo em Phrynops geoffroanus (Testudines: Chelidae): uma nova abordagem não invasiva

Abstract The sexing of species is an important tool for population management. In tortoises and turtles, sexing is usually done according to secondary characteristics, such as plastron morphology or phallus eversion techniques. In this paper, we present the phallus eversion method and compare its efficiency to other existing techniques. This new method aims at shortening the management time and reducing the physical aftereffects on the animals, fostering the clinical and reproductive management of Geoffroy's side-necked turtle (Phrynops geoffroanus) and related species. A sample of fifty individuals was taken in the central region of Piauí state, Northeastern Brazil. The proposed method consisted of moving the head from its resting position. The methods achieving a success rate higher than 80% were compared to each other as for the stimulation time required for phallus eversion. The method as here proposed achieved 100% efficiency in the sex determination of specimens with a linear carapace length between 10 and 34 cm. Also, when compared to the second most efficient method, it substantially reduced the time needed for managing the specimens (91%), avoiding possible sequelae in the individuals handled.

Resumo A sexagem das espécies é uma ferramenta importante para o manejo populacional. Em tartarugas, cágados e jabutis, a sexagem geralmente é feita de acordo com características secundárias, como morfologia do plastrão ou técnicas de eversão do falo. Neste artigo, apresentamos o método de eversão do falo e comparamos sua eficiência com outras técnicas existentes. Este novo método visa encurtar o tempo de manejo e reduzir os efeitos colaterais físicos nos animais, promovendo o manejo clínico e reprodutivo do cágado-de-barbicha (Phrynops geoffroanus) e espécies relacionadas. Uma amostra de cinquenta indivíduos foi coletada na região central do estado do Piauí, Nordeste do Brasil. O método proposto consiste em remover a cabeça de sua posição de repouso. Os métodos que obtiveram índice de sucesso superior a 80% foram comparados entre si quanto ao tempo de estimulação necessário para a eversão do falo. O método aqui proposto alcançou 100% de eficiência na determinação do sexo de espécimes com comprimento de carapaça linear entre 10 e 34 cm. Além disso, quando comparado ao segundo método mais eficiente, reduziu substancialmente o tempo necessário para o manejo dos espécimes (91%), evitando possíveis sequelas nos indivíduos manuseados.

Phallus eversion sexing in Phrynops geoffroanus (Testudines: Chelidae): a new non-invasive approach

Abstract The sexing of species is an important tool for population management. In tortoises and turtles, sexing is usually done according to secondary characteristics, such as plastron morphology or phallus eversion techniques. In this paper, we present the phallus eversion method and compare its efficiency to other existing techniques. This new method aims at shortening the management time and reducing the physical aftereffects on the animals, fostering the clinical and reproductive management of Geoffroys side-necked turtle (Phrynops geoffroanus) and related species. A sample of fifty individuals was taken in the central region of Piauí state, Northeastern Brazil. The proposed method consisted of moving the head from its resting position. The methods achieving a success rate higher than 80% were compared to each other as for the stimulation time required for phallus eversion. The method as here proposed achieved 100% efficiency in the sex determination of specimens with a linear carapace length between 10 and 34 cm. Also, when compared to the second most efficient method, it substantially reduced the time needed for managing the specimens (91%), avoiding possible sequelae in the individuals handled.

Resumo A sexagem das espécies é uma ferramenta importante para o manejo populacional. Em tartarugas, cágados e jabutis, a sexagem geralmente é feita de acordo com características secundárias, como morfologia do plastrão ou técnicas de eversão do falo. Neste artigo, apresentamos o método de eversão do falo e comparamos sua eficiência com outras técnicas existentes. Este novo método visa encurtar o tempo de manejo e reduzir os efeitos colaterais físicos nos animais, promovendo o manejo clínico e reprodutivo do cágado-de-barbicha (Phrynops geoffroanus) e espécies relacionadas. Uma amostra de cinquenta indivíduos foi coletada na região central do estado do Piauí, Nordeste do Brasil. O método proposto consiste em remover a cabeça de sua posição de repouso. Os métodos que obtiveram índice de sucesso superior a 80% foram comparados entre si quanto ao tempo de estimulação necessário para a eversão do falo. O método aqui proposto alcançou 100% de eficiência na determinação do sexo de espécimes com comprimento de carapaça linear entre 10 e 34 cm. Além disso, quando comparado ao segundo método mais eficiente, reduziu substancialmente o tempo necessário para o manejo dos espécimes (91%), evitando possíveis sequelas nos indivíduos manuseados.

First report of fibropapillomatosis (FP) and Chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5) in a green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) from the historically fibropapillomatosis-free Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, Northeastern Brazil / Primeiro caso de fibropapilomatose (FP) e de Chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5) em tartaruga-verde (Chelonia mydas) no Arquipélago de Fernando de Noronha, Nordeste do Brasil

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is an infectious disease caused by Chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5). Nevertheless, its clinical manifestations are considered multifactorial. Due to its relevance, FP is currently monitored in sea turtle populations in the United States, Australia, Caribbean, and Brazil. Between 2000 and 2020, the TAMAR Project/ TAMAR Project Foundation analyzed the prevalence of FP in nine states and oceanic islands along the Brazilian coast, including Fernando de Noronha Archipelago (FNA), a historically FP-free area. A total of 4,435 green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were monitored from 2010 to 2016. Additionally, in 2012 and 2014, 43 FP-free skin samples were analyzed for ChHV5 using a qualitative PCR for the UL30 polymerase (pol) sequence. In 2015, a bilateral ocular nodule characterized as an FP tumor was reported in one of the monitored individuals undergoing rehabilitation. Tissue samples were collected following surgical removal of the tumor. Characterization of a 454 bp UL30 polymerase gene revealed a ChHV5 sequence previously reported in other areas of the Atlantic Brazilian coast. In the years following this finding from January 2017 to March 2020, a total of 360 C. mydas were monitored in the same area and no FP tumors were detected. This is the first report of FP and the first detection of ChHV5 in FNA, a finding of great concern considering this site's historical absence of FP occurrence. This study highlights the importance of monitoring this disease in historically FP-free areas of the Brazilian Atlantic coast.(AU)

A fibropapilomatose (FP) é uma doença infecciosa causada pelo Chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5). No entanto, as manifestações clínicas da doença são consideradas multifatoriais. Esta doença é monitorada atualmente em populações de tartarugas marinhas nos EUA, Austrália, Caribe e Brasil. Desde 2000, o Projeto TAMAR/Fundação Projeto TAMAR analisa a presença de FP em nove estados da costa brasileira e ilhas oceânicas, incluindo o arquipélago de Fernando de Noronha, uma área historicamente livre de FP. Um total de 4.435 indivíduos de Chelonia mydas foram monitorados de 2010 a 2016 e 43 amostras de pele foram analisadas para detectar ChHV5 em 2012 e 2014 com o objetivo de avaliar a presença do vírus em tecidos sem FP, usando uma PCR qualitativa para detecção de sequências do gene da UL30 polimerase. Em 2015, uma tartaruga verde (C. mydas) foi relatada com um nódulo ocular bilateral caracterizado como FP. Amostras de tecido foram coletadas durante sua reabilitação e procedimento cirúrgico para remover o tumor. A caracterização parcial de uma sequência de 454 bp do gene UL30 polimerase detectou ChHV5 anteriormente relatado em outras áreas da costa atlântica brasileira. Após estes achados, de janeiro de 2017 a março de 2020, um total de 360 indivíduos de C. mydas foram monitorados e nenhum caso de FP foi registrado. Este é o primeiro relato de FP e a primeira caracterização de ChHV5 no arquipélago de Fernando de Noronha, uma questão preocupante e que ressalta a importância do monitoramento desta doença em áreas historicamente livres de FP na costa atlântica brasileira.(AU)

Relación entre la temperatura de incubación y la asimetría del carapacho de neonatos de Lepidochelys olivacea incubados en el Área de Usos Múltiples Hawaii (AUMH), Santa Rosa, Guatemala / Relationship between incubation temperature and carapace asymmetry of neonates of Lepidochelys olivacea incubated in the Area of Multiple Use Hawaii (AUMH), Santa Rosa, Guatemala

Los embriones de tortugas marinas son susceptibles a perturbaciones ambientales, las cuales se traducen en anomalías en su fenotipo. Uno de los principales parámetros para la medición de estas perturbaciones es la asimetría en los carapachos (caparazones), que puede ser obtenida a través del Índice de Inestabilidad de Desarrollo (DIx, por sus siglas en inglés). La temperatura juega un rol importante, influenciando no solo en la futura supervivencia de los neonatos en temperaturas extremas (altas o bajas), sino en atributos específicos, tales como la determinación del sexo, o incluso puede ser la causa del incremento en el número de apéndices dérmicos (escudos) sobre la parte dorsal del carapacho. Este estudio evaluó la relación entre la temperatura de incubación con la asimetría de carapacho de los neonatos de Lepidochelys olivacea incubados en condiciones relocalizadas en el tortugario del Área de Usos Múltiples Hawaii en Santa Rosa, Guatemala. Para lograrlo, se replicaron las condiciones de anidación seleccionadas por las hembras anidadoras en nidos relocalizados, utilizando dispositivos termosensitivos para la toma de la temperatura durante el período de incubación. A través del cálculo del DIx en 210 neonatos, y mediante las pruebas de correlación de Kendall y Jockheere-Terpstra, se obtuvo que en valores de temperaturas extremas tanto altas (Kendall tau = .23, p < .001; JT = 2,891, p < .001), como bajas (Kendall tau u= -.21, p < .001; JT = 5,005, p < .001), así como en altos rangos de variación durante el período de desarrollo embrionario (Kendall tau = .23, p < .001; JT = 6,619, p < .05), los neonatos presentan una mayor asimetría.

Sea turtle embryos are susceptible to environmental disturbances, which result in abnormalities in their phenotype. One of the main parameters for measuring these disturbances is the asymmetry in the carapaces, which can be obtained through the Developmental Instability Index (DIx). Temperature plays an important role, influencing not only the future survival of hatchlings in extreme temperatures (high or low), but also specific attributes, such as sex determination, or it can even be the cause of the increase in the number of dermal appendages (shields) on the dorsal part of the carapace. This aimed to evaluate the relationship between incubation temperature and carapace asymmetry of Lepidochelys olivacea hatchlings incubated in relocated conditions in the Hawaii Multiple Use Area turtle rookery in Santa Rosa, Guatemala. To achieve this, the nesting conditions selected by the nesting females were replicated in relocated nests, using thermosensitive devices to measure the temperature during the incubation period. rough the calculation of DIx in 210 hatchlings, and using Kendall and Jockheere-Terpstra correlation tests, it was obtained that hatchlings present greater asymmetry in values of extreme temperatures, for both, high (Kendall: p<.05, tau = .232 ; JT p<.05, JT=2891) and low (Kendall: p<.05, tau= -.211 ; JT p<.05, JT=5005); as well as in high ranges of variation (Kendall: p<.05, tau= .231 ; JT p<.05, JT=6619), during the embryonic development period

Sexual dimorphism in the turtle Kinosternon scorpioides (Testudines: Kinosternidae) from Marajó Island, Brazilian Amazon / Dimorfismo sexual de la tortuga Kinosternon scorpioides (Testudines: Kinosternidae) en la isla de Marajó, Amazonia brasileña

Abstract Introduction: Morphometrics analysis is an efficient and low-cost technique used in studies of sexual dimorphism in turtles. Kinosternon scorpioides scorpioides, scorpion mud turtle, has a wide phenotypic variation, depending on the area of its occurrence. Objective: The objective of this work was to identify the anatomical sexual difference of K. s. scorpioides, adults and hatchlings, through morphometric analysis; and relate the weights of adult animals to environmental factors (temperature and rainfall) in Marajó Island, Brazil. Methods: The sample collection was carried out from March to September 2018, covering both the rainy season (January to July) and the dry season (August to December). For the biometric analysis, 95 adults and 21 hatchlings were used, in which the length and width of the carapace and plastron, height of the shell, and weight were measured (adults only). For the geometric morphometry analysis, 21 adults and 13 hatchlings were used, in which 27 coordinates of anatomical landmarks were inserted in each image of the carapace and 11 in the plastron. Hatchlings were sexed by histology which was enabled by the identification of the ovaries and testicles. Results: The results showed the existence of dimorphism in adults. The plastron and height were higher in females, which had a more rounded carapace than males. This characteristic may be related to the species' sexual strategy, where males impose copulation. Histologically, it was possible to identify the ovaries and testicles in the hatchlings, but there was no anatomical sexual difference, despite the tendency to differentiate in the analysis of carapace PCA. Conclusions: Sexual dimorphism in K. s. scorpioides may play an important role on its reproductive behavior, which is synchronized with environmental events. This fact suggests that the reproductive strategies of this species would be severely affected by changes in the ecosystem.

Resumen Introducción: La morfometría es una técnica eficiente y de bajo costo, utilizada en estudios de dimorfismo sexual en tortugas, mediante el marcado de puntos anatómicos. Este grupo incluye Kinosternon scorpioides scorpioides, con una amplia variedad fenotípica, dependiendo del área en la que se encuentra presente. Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar la diferencia sexual entre K. s. scorpioides, adultos y juveniles, a través del análisis morfométrico; y verificar la relación entre las medidas de peso para adultos y los factores ambientales (temperatura y precipitación) en la isla de Marajó, Brasil. Métodos: La recolecta se realizó de marzo a septiembre de 2018, cubriendo tanto la temporada de lluvias (enero a julio) como la estación seca (agosto a diciembre). Para el análisis biométrico, se utilizaron 95 animales adultos y 21 crías, en los que se midió la longitud y el ancho del caparazón y el plastrón, la altura del casco y el peso en adultos. Para la morfometría geométrica, se utilizaron 21 adultos y 13 juveniles, en los que se identificaron 27 coordenadas de puntos de referencia anatómicos en el caparazón y 11 en el plastrón. Los individuos recién eclosionados fueron sexados por histología de rutina, que permite identificar ovarios y testículos. Resultados: Los datos analizados mostraron que existe dimorfismo sexual en adultos. El plastrón y la altura fueron mayores en las hembras, que tenían un caparazón más redondeado que los machos. Esta característica puede estar relacionada con la estrategia sexual de la especie, donde los machos imponen la cópula. En los juveniles recién eclosionados fue posible identificar histológicamente los ovarios y los testículos, pero no hubo diferencias sexuales en relación con la morfometría corporal, a pesar de la tendencia a diferenciarse en el análisis de PCA de caparazón. Conclusiones: El dimorfismo sexual en K. s. scorpioides puede desempeñar un papel importante en su comportamiento reproductivo, que ocurre en sincronía con los eventos ambientales. Este hecho sugiere que las estrategias reproductivas de esta especie se verían gravemente afectadas por los cambios en el ecosistema.

Isolation and characterization of the aerobic bacterial microbiota of the esophagus and its probable association with obstructive caseous lesions in green turtles (Chelonia mydas) / Isolamento e caracterização da microbiota bacteriana aeróbia do esôfago e sua provável associação com lesões caseosas obstrutivas em tartarugas-verdes (Chelonia mydas)

Caseous lesions in the esophagus of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) from the coast of Brazil have been described as obstructive lesions and can lead to the death of these animals. However, their etiology remains unclear. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize the aerobic bacterial microbiota of the esophagus of green turtles (C. mydas) from the Brazilian coast and to verify its possible participation in the etiology of caseous lesions. For this, 42 animals were used, 33 alive and healthy and 9 naturally dead that had esophageal lesions confirmed by necropsy, from Anchieta and Piúma beaches, Espírito Santo. Microbiological tests and morphological evaluation of the esophagus were performed. We isolated 14 different bacterial agents from healthy animal samples, with the prevalence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa being (36.36%), Staphylococcus aureus (33.33%), Aeromonas hydrophila (27.27%), and Vibrio alginolyticus (24.24%). In dead animals, only three distinct agents were isolated: S. aureus (50.00%), A. hydrophila (25.00%), and V. alginolyticus (25.00%). Morphological evaluation revealed a predominance of the lesions at the gastroesophageal junction, with multifocal-to-coalescent distribution, discrete intensity, and absence of obstruction. Ulcerations and caseous exudates, inflammatory infiltrates, parasitic eggs, and giant foreign body cells were also observed as well as bacterial lumps and glandular alterations, such as necrosis, adenitis, and fragments of adult parasites. There was a positive correlation between bacterial lumps and microbiological culture and a negative correlation between bacterial lumps and microbiological culture with parasites. Thus, it was noted that the esophageal aerobic microbiota of C. mydas was predominantly composed of Gram-negative bacteria such as P. aeruginosa, A. hydrophila, and V. alginolyticus, in addition to several enterobacteria and Gram-positive bacteria, such as S. aureus. These agents are opportunists and may be involved in the etiology of caseous esophagitis in association with other pathogens as co-factors working in association or, even in a secondary way.(AU)

A ocorrência de lesão caseosa no esôfago de tartarugas-verdes (Chelonia mydas) da costa do Brasil tem sido descrita como de caráter obstrutivo e pode causar a morte dos animais. No entanto, sua etiologia permanece pouco esclarecida. Objetivou-se isolar e caracterizar a microbiota aeróbica esofágica das tartarugas-verdes (C. mydas) da costa brasileira e verificar sua possível participação na etiologia das lesões caseosas. Foram utilizados 42 animais, 33 vivos e hígidos e nove mortos naturalmente que apresentavam lesão esofágica confirmada pela necropsia, provenientes de Anchieta e Piúma, Espírito Santo, nos quais foram feitos testes microbiológicos e avaliação morfológica do esôfago. Foram isolados 14 agentes bacterianos diferentes nas amostras de animais saudáveis, com prevalência de Pseudomonas aeruginosa (36,36%), Staphylococcus aureus (33,33%), Aeromonas hydrophila (27,27%) e Vibrio alginolyticus (24,24%). Nos animais mortos, foram isolados apenas três agentes distintos: S. aureus (50,00%), A. hydrophila (25,00%) e V. alginolyticus (25,00%). A avaliação morfológica revelou predominância da lesão em junção gastroesofágica, com distribuição multifocal a coalescente, intensidade discreta e ausência de obstrução. Observou-se ainda ulceração e exsudato caseoso, infiltrado inflamatório, ovos de parasitos e células gigantes do tipo corpo estranho, além de grumos bacterianos e de alterações glandulares, como necrose, adenite e fragmentos de parasitos adultos. Houve correlação positiva dos grumos bacterianos com cultivo microbiológico e negativa dos grumos bacterianos e cultivo microbiológico com parasitos. Assim, nota-se que a microbiota esofágica aeróbica de C. mydas é constituída predominantemente por bactérias Gram-negativas como P. aeruginosa, A. hydrophila e V. alginolyticus, além de diversas enterobatérias e por Gram-positivas, como S. aureus. Esses agentes são oportunistas e podem estar envolvidos na etiologia da esofagite caseosa em associação a outros patógenos como co-fatores agindo em associação, ou mesmo, por via de infecção secundária.(AU)

Sex ratio of the green sea turtle Chelonia mydas (Testudines: Cheloniidae) hatchlings in the Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Cuba

Introduction: Sea turtles have temperature dependent sex determination. The increase in global temperature leads to higher nest temperatures that can cause a prevalence of females, threatening the future of these species. Objective: The present work aims to evaluate the trend of incubation temperatures and the incubation period, as well as to estimate the sex ratio in nests of Chelonia mydas at Antonio and La Barca beaches, Southwestern Cuba, during the seasons from 2012 to 2018. Methods: Temperature data loggers were placed in green turtle nests with a representativeness that varied between the years analyzed. To assess the temporal variation of temperatures and incubation periods, a Kruskal-Wallis test was performed in each case. Sex ratio was estimated from its relation with temperature and incubation duration. Results: At La Barca beach, there was a 1.5 °C increase in the mean nest temperature from 2012 to 2018, although no differences were found in the period from 2015 to 2018. At Antonio beach, there is no trend since no differences were found in the mean nest temperature except for the years 2013 and 2017, which had lower temperatures than the other seasons. In both beaches mean nest temperature exceeded 30 °C in most of the years. As a result, there was a predominance of nests with incubation periods shorter than 55 days. With these values, a female hatchling production over 90 % is expected in both study sites. Conclusions: In correspondence with the registered temperature and incubation period values, most of the years reflect a hatchling production biased towards females in both beaches.

Introducción: La determinación del sexo en tortugas marinas depende de la temperatura. El aumento de la temperatura global conlleva a temperaturas más altas en los nidos, lo cual puede provocar un predominio de las hembras, amenazando el futuro de estas especies. Objetivo: El presente trabajo busca evaluar la tendencia de las temperaturas y los períodos de incubación, así como estimar la proporción sexual en nidos de Chelonia mydas,en las playas Antonio y La Barca, suroeste de Cuba, durante las temporadas del 2012 al 2018. Métodos: Se colocaron sensores para registrar la temperatura en los nidos de esta especie con una representatividad que varió entre los años analizados. Para evaluar la variación temporal de las temperaturas y los periodos de incubación, se realizó una prueba de Kruskal-Wallis en cada caso. Las estimaciones de las proporciones sexuales se realizaron a partir de la temperatura y duración de la incubación. Resultados: En playa La Barca, hubo un incremento de 1.5 °C en la temperatura promedio del nido del 2012 al 2018, aunque no se encontraron diferencias en el periodo de 2015-2018. En playa Antonio, no hay tendencia ya que no se encontraron diferencias en la temperatura promedio del nido, excepto para el 2013 y 2017, los cuales tuvieron temperaturas menores que en las otras temporadas. En ambas playas la temperatura promedio del nido excedió 30 °C en la mayoría de los años. Como resultado, hubo un predominio de nidos con periodos de incubación inferiores a 55 días. Con estos valores, se espera una producción de hembras en las crías superior al 90 % en ambos sitios de estudio. Conclusiones: En correspondencia con los valores de temperatura y periodo de incubación registrados, la mayoría de los años refleja una producción de crías sesgada hacia las hembras en ambas playas.

Plasma cholinesterase activity as an environmental impact biomarker in juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) / Atividade da colinesterase plasmática como biomarcador de impacto ambiental em tartarugas verdes juvenis (Chelonia mydas)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the enzymatic activity of plasma cholinesterase in Chelonia mydas marine turtles belonging to two populations, according to their capture sites, under the absence and probable influence of anthropic effects. A total of 74 animals were used and later divided into two groups, based on the capture site. Blood samples were collected from all captured animals, which were then released into the sea at the site of capture. A descriptive statistical analysis of the plasma cholinesterase activity values and an analysis comparing these values based on the capture site were performed. Samples of heparinized plasma from animals captured at the two different sites were analyzed. Plasma cholinesterase activity ranged from 121 to 248U/L, with a mean and standard deviation of 186.1±30.68U/L. When comparing plasma cholinesterase activity values in individuals based on the capture site, a significant difference was observed. Establishing reference values for different sea turtle populations is necessary to interpret future sampling results and to allow sea turtles to be used as sentinels of ecosystem health. Future studies are needed to evaluate other populations and the activity of plasma cholinesterase in juvenile marine turtles, in relation to environmental contamination.(AU)

O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a atividade enzimática da colinesterase plasmática em tartarugas marinhas da espécie Chelonia mydas em duas populações de acordo com o local de captura, sob ausência e provável influência de efeito antrópico. Foi utilizado um total de 74 animais e posteriormente divididos em dois grupos de acordo com o local de captura. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue de todos os animais capturados e em seguida liberados ao mar no mesmo local. Foi realizada uma análise estatística descritiva dos valores da atividade plasmática de colinesterase do total de animais e análise comparando os valores de acordo com o local de captura. Foram analisadas amostras de plasma heparinizado de animais capturados em dois locais distintos. Os valores da atividade plasmática de colinesterase variaram de 121 a 248U/L, com média e desvio padrão de 186.1±30.7U/L. Quando comparados os valores de atividade plasmática da colinesterase nos indivíduos de acordo com o local de captura, foi observada diferença significativa. O estabelecimento de valores de referência para diferentes populações de tartarugas marinhas são necessários para interpretar os futuros resultados amostrais e permitir que as tartarugas marinhas sejam usadas como sentinelas da saúde do ecossistema. Estudos futuros são necessários para avaliar outras populações e a atividade da colinesterase plasmática de tartarugas marinhas juvenis em relação à contaminação ambiental.(AU)

FLOATING Sargassum IN SERRANILLA BANK, CARIBBEAN COLOMBIA, MAY JEOPARDIZE THE RACE TO THE OCEAN OF BABY SEA TURTLES / Sargassum flotante en Cayo Serranilla, Caribe colombiano, puede perjudicar la llegada al océano de las tortugas marinas recién nacidas

ABSTRACT We report for the first time great quantities of floating Sargassum to Serranilla Bank, in the Central Caribbean. The island is an important nesting site for sea turtles, and by the time the Sargassum wave arrived, the baby turtles were disclosing. Due to the thick mat of Sargassum along the beach, the baby turtles may have troubles to reach the ocean.

RESUMEN Se reporta por primera vez una gran cantidad de Sargassum flotante en Cayo Serranilla, en el Caribe central. La isla es un sitio importante para anidamiento de tortugas marinas, y al momento de la llegada del Sargassum, los nidos estaban eclosionando. Debido al espeso tapete de algas en la playa, las tortuguas pueden tener problemas en llegar al mar.

Nuevos marcadores mitocondriales mejoran la filogenia de la tortuga carey Eretmochelys imbricata (Testudines: Cheloniidae) / New mitochondrial markers improve the phylogeny of the hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Testudines: Cheloniidae)

Las tortugas marinas (Cheloniidae) son un grupo de siete especies originadas en el cretaceo. Analisis de secuencias parciales de DNA mitocondrial han revelado inconsistencias filogeneticas dentro de este grupo de quelonios. Sin embargo, estos marcadores mitocondriales han permitido entender y dilucidar la composicion de las poblaciones en areas de forrajeo, habitos reproductivos, inferencias de patrones de migracion y tambien definir las unidades de manejo en el mundo, con el fin de proponer planes de manejo y conservacion. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la posicion de la tortuga carey E. imbricata dentro de la familia Cheloniidae y la filogenia de las tortugas marinas utilizando genes mitocondriales codificantes de proteinas, genes ribosomicos y el genoma mitocondrial completo de la tortuga carey anidante del Caribe colombiano, al compararlo con las otras seis especies de tortugas marinas disponibles en GenBank. Se utilizaron cuatro metodos de inferencias filogeneticas: Neighbor-Joining (NJ), Maxima Verosimilitud (ML), Maxima Parsimonia (MP) e Inferencia Bayesiana (IB). Los arboles NJ, ML, MP e IB mostraron que ND2, COX1, 16S ARNr, ND5, 12S ARNr, ND4, COX3 y ND1 son los marcadores que presentan una mejor resolucion filogenetica con sustentos bootstrap entre 89,0% y 99,98%. Los genes ATP6, ATP8, COX2, ND3, ND4L y ND5 presentaron politomias y establecieron relaciones filogeneticas equivocadas. El analisis con el mitogenoma completo presento arboles altamente sustentados (bootstrap de 98,0%) en comparacion con el analisis con marcadores individuales. Los arboles obtenidos con el gen ND2 e IB resolvieron con buen sustento las relaciones evolutivas entre las especies comparadas, consolidandose la posicion de E. imbricata dentro de la tribu Carettini con probabilidad posterior de 0,98-1,0. Los marcadores ND2, ND5, ND4, COX3 y ND1 no han sido utilizados en trabajos previos y representan una nueva alternativa para explicar la filogenia en este grupo de reptiles marinos. En el presente caso utilizando mitogenomas completos se obtuvieron arboles robustos y altamente sustentados.

The sea turtles (Cheloniidae) are a group of seven species of cretaceous origin. Analyses of partial mitochondrial sequences have revealed phylogenetic inconsistences within this group. Nevertheless, these mitochondrial markers have allowed us to understand, explain and clarify population composition in areas of foraging, reproductive habits, inferences of migration patterns and, also, to define management units in the world, in order to trace conservation and monitoring plans. In this study, four methods were evaluated and compared for phylogenetic inference (Neighbor-Joining-NJ, Maximum Likelihood-ML, Maximum Parsimony-MP and Bayesian inference-BI) by using coding genes, ribosomal genes and full mitogenomes of the hawksbill, E. imbricata, and other six species of sea turtles obtained from GenBank. The sequences were analyzed independently and jointly to identify the method and marker that better explain the phylogenetic relationships among this group of reptiles. The NJ, ML, MP and BI trees showed that ND2, COX1, 16S rRNA, ND5, 12S rRNA, ND4 and COX3 are the markers that give phylogenetic trees with better resolution and support, with bootstrap values ranging from 89.0% to 99.98%. ATP6, ATP8, COX2, ND1, ND3, ND5 and ND4L genes presented polytomies. The analysis with full mitogenome often provides highly supported trees (bootstrap 98.0%) compared with single marker analysis. Trees obtained with the BI method and the ND2 gene is the one that better resolved the evolutionary relationships among the species, consolidating the position of E. imbricata within the Carettini tribe with a value of posterior probability of 0.98-1.0. The markers ND2, ND4, ND5 and COIII, not used in previous works, represent a new alternative to explain the phylogeny in this group of marine reptiles. In the present study, a complete mitogenome analysis produced robust and highly supported trees.

Presencia de Salmonella spp. en tortugas de río en cautiverio y en libertad en Urabá, Colombia / Presence of Salmonella spp in captivity and wild river turtles in Urabá, Colombia / Presença de Salmonella spp. em tartarugas de rio em cativeiro e em liberdade em Urabá, Colômbia

Resumen La salmonelosis es una enfermedad infecciosa de alta prevalencia a nivel mundial en la cual las tortugas han sido reconocidas como portadores crónicos. Diferentes estudios han reportado la presencia de Salmonella spp. en tortugas de río en diferentes países, sin embargo, ha sido poco reportada en individuos en libertad. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la presencia de Salmonella spp. en tortugas de río en cautiverio (n= 55) y en libertad (n= 50) en el Urabá antioqueño (Colombia) entre 2015-2016. Se incluyeron las especies Trachemys venusta, Rhinoclemmys melanosterna y Kinosternon leucostomum. Se tomó la muestra de materia fecal por hisopado cloacal, se cultivó y de las colonias aisladas se realizó extracción de ADN y reacción en cadena de polimerasa (PCR). De la población muestreada (n=105) se encontraron dos individuos positivos a Salmonella spp., ambos en cautiverio, machos, adultos y pertenecientes a la especie R. melanosterna. Los resultados obtenidos no excluyen la posibilidad de infección debido a la intermitencia en la excreción de la bacteria en heces. Esta investigación aporta evidencia a la presencia de la bacteria en las tortugas de la región de estudio y la necesidad de implementar medidas preventivas que disminuyan el contacto con estas especies, y por lo tanto la probabilidad de transmisión de salmonelosis no tifoidea en la población humana de la región.

Abstract Salmonellosis is a high prevalence infectious diseases worldwide and turties have been recognized as chronic carriers. Studies have reported the presence of Salmonella spp in river turtles in different countries; however, studies in wild individuals are less common. The objective of this study was to identify the presence of Salmonella spp in wild (n=50) and in captivity (n=55) river turtles in Uraba Antioqueño (Colombia) between 201 5-2016. Trachemys venusta, Rhinoclemmys melanosterna, and Kinosternon leucosto-mum were included. Feces samples were taken by cloaca swab׳ cultures were performed, and DNA extraction and PCR were made from the colonies isolated. From total population(n=105) two male, adults in captivity were positive, the specie was R. melanosterna. The results obtained do not exclude infection due to the intermittence in the excretion of the bacteria in feces. This research provides evidence of the presence of the bacteria in turtles from the region and highlights the requirement to implement preventive activities to reduce contact with these species, and decrease the probability of transmission of nontyphoidal salmonellosis in human population around the region.

Resumo Salmonelose é uma doença de alta prevalência mundial. As tartarugas são reconhecidas como portadoras crônicas. Em diferentes países tem sido relatado a presença de Salmonella spp. em tartarugas de rios embora, poucos são os estudos em indivíduos selvagens. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar na região do Urabá Antioqueño (Colombia) nos anos 2015 e 2016 a presença de Salmonella spp. em tartarugas selvagens (n = 50) e em cativeiro (n = 55). Foram incluídas tartarugas das espécies Trachemys venusta, Rhinoclemmys melanosterna e Kinosternon leucostomum. Foi coletada por esfregaço cloacal e para cultura uma amostra de fezes. A partir das colônias isoladas foi realizada extração de DNA para testes moleculares (PCR). Da população total (n = 105) foram positivos do grupo de cativeiro dois machos adultos da espécie R. melanosterna. Devido à intermitência na excreção das bactérias nas fezes os resultados obtidos não excluem a infecção. Esta pesquisa fornece evidências da presença da bactéria em tartarugas da região do Urabá e destaca a necessidade de implementar atividades preventivas para reduzir o contato com essas espécies selvagens e diminuir a probabilidade de transmissão zoonótica de salmonelose não tifoidal na população humana da região.

La epibiosis en los grandes vertebrados marinos de México: una revisión y su relevancia ecosistémica / Epibiosis in the large marine vertebrates from Mexico: a review and their ecosystemic relevance

En este trabajo se revisan los casos de epibiosis reportados en los grandes vertebrados de México. La revisión de literatura incluye las publicaciones realizadas al mes de junio de 2018 considerando los 17 estados del litoral costero de la república mexicana. Se encontraron 21 trabajos de investigación, los cuales reportan un total de 73 especies epibiontes de flora y fauna asociados superficialmente a ocho especies de grandes vertebrados marinos: Lepidochelys olivácea, Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Trichechus manatus manatus, Fe resa attenuata, Crocodylus acutus, C. moreletii, Caiman crocodilus chiapasius . El grupo epibionte dominante fueron los crustáceos, especialmente los cirrípedos. La interacción predominante fue el comensalismo, sin embargo se reconocieron grupos parasitarios como los copépodos del genero Balaenophilus que afectan principalmente a tortugas marinas. Se analizó la relevancia del estudio del biofilm, así como sus implicaciones ecológicas, taxonómicas por la presencia de nuevas especies para la ciencia y de conservación de las especies basibiontes para establecer criterios que ayuden a comprender su importancia en los ecosistemas marinos y por lo tanto fomentar su estudio en la región.

The aims of this work is review epibiosis reported on the large marine vertebrates from Mexico. The literature review include reporting cases on any of 17 states of the littoral coast of the Mexican Republic, and those published until June 2018. Twenty one papers were found, which report a total of 73 species of flora and fauna superficially associated with eight species of large marine vertebrates: Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Trichechus manatus manatus, Feresa attenuata, Crocodylus acutus, C. moreletii, Caiman crocodilus chiapasius . The dominant epibiont group was the crustaceans, especially barnacles. The predominant interaction was commensalism, however, parasitic groups were recognized such as the copepods genus Balaenophilus that affects mainly to sea turtles. The relevance of the study of the biofilm, as well as the ecological implications, the presence of new marine species and the conservation of the basibionts species were analyzed to establish criteria that help to understand the importance in marine ecosystems and therefore encourage their study in the region.

Estado del conocimiento y amenazas de la tortuga sabanera ( Podocnemis vogli, Podocnemididae) en Colombia / Knowledge and threat status of savanna side-necked turtle (Podocnemis vogli, Podocnemididae) in Colombia / Estado do conhecimento e ameaças da tartaruga da savana (Podocnemis vogli, Podocnemididae) na Colômbia

Resumen Podocnemis vogli (Podocnemididae) es una especie de tortuga dulceacuícola, que se distribuye en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia y en Venezuela. Esta especie habita cuerpos de agua lenticos de las sabanas y tieneuna dieta principalmente herbívora; durante su ciclo de vida las hembras se desplazan a tierra firme para anidar en época seca. En este periodo de su vida, las hembras son capturadas por los pobladores de la región para consumir su carne y huevos, realizando una explotación cuya magnitud se desconoce. Además del impacto directo a las poblaciones, los cambios en el uso del suelo han generado la destrucción del hábitat de P. vogli. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el estado actual del conocimiento y amenaza de P. vogli en Colombia, con el fin de estimular su estudio y el establecimiento de medidas para su preservación. La información disponible en las bases de datos académicas muestra que existe un gran vacío en el conocimiento ecológico y genético de P. vogli y que es urgente establecer medidas tendientes a su protección para reducir su probabilidad de extinción.

Abstract Podocnemis vogli (Podocnemidae) is a freshwater turtle species, distributed in the Eastern Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela. Inhabits lentic water bodies of the savanna and has a mainly herbivorous diet, during its life cycle, the females move to mainland for nesting in dry season. Currently, females of this species are hunted for their meat and eggs for the local settlers, in an unknown quantity. Besides the direct impact on populations, changes in land use have led to the destruction of the P. vogli habitat. The aim of this paper is analyze the current state of knowledge and threats of P. vogli in Colombia, in order to encourage the study and the establishment of measures for preservation. The information available in academic presendatabases shows that exist a large gap between the ecological and genetic knowledge of P. vogli, and is imperative establish measures for their protection in order to reduce their probability of extinction.

Resumo Podocnemis vogli (Podocnemidae) é uma espécie de tartaruga de água-doce, que distribui-se nas savanas orientais da Colômbia e na Venezuela. Habita corpos d'água lênticos e tem uma dieta principalmente herbívora. Durante seu ciclo de vida as fêmeas migram para terra firme onde fazem seus ninhos na época da seca. As fêmeas são caçadas pelos moradores da região por conta de sua carne e ovos, fazendo uma exploração cuja magnitude é desconhecida. Além do impacto direto nas populações, as mudanças no uso da terra têm levado à destruição do habitat de P. vogli. O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar o estado atual do conhecimento e ameaça da P. vogli na Colômbia, a fim de incentivar o estudo e estabelecimento de medidas para sua preservação. As informações disponíveis nas bases de dados acadêmicas mostram que há uma grande lacuna no conhecimento ecológico e genético de P. vogli e é urgente o estabelecimento de medidas para a sua proteção visando reduzir sua probabilidade de extinção.

Quinolone susceptibility and genetic characterization of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica isolated from pet turtles / 한국실험동물학회지

Turtle-borne Salmonella enterica owns significance as a leading cause in human salmonellosis. The current study aimed to determine the quinolone susceptibility and the genetic characteristics of 21 strains of S. enterica subsp. enterica isolated from pet turtles. Susceptibility of four antimicrobials including nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, and levofloxacin was examined in disk diffusion and MIC tests where the majority of the isolates were susceptible to all tested quinolones. In genetic characterization, none of the isolates were positive for qnr or aac(6')-Ib genes and no any target site mutations could be detected in gyrA, gyrB, and parC quinolone resistance determining regions (QRDR). In addition, neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree derived using gyrA gene sequences exhibited two distinct clads comprising; first, current study isolates, and second, quinolone-resistant isolates of human and animal origin. All results suggest that studied strains of S. enterica subsp. enterica isolated from pet turtles are susceptible to quinolones and genetically more conserved with regards to gyrA gene region.

Antimicrobial property of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) oil against pathogenic bacteria isolated from pet turtles / 한국실험동물학회지

The usage of essential oils as antimicrobial agents is gaining attention. Besides, pet turtles were known to harbor a range of pathogenic bacteria while the turtle keeping is a growing trend worldwide.The current study examined the antimicrobial activity of lemon grass oil (LGO) against seven species of Gram negative bacteria namely; Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, Citrobacter freundii, Salmonella enterica, Edwardsiella tarda, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus mirabilis isolated from three popular species of pet turtles. Along with the results of disc diffusion, minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentration (MIC and MBC) tests, LGO was detected as effective against 6 species of bacteria excluding P. aeruginosa. MIC of LGO for the strains except P. aeruginosa ranged from 0.016 to 0.5% (V/V). The lowest MIC recorded in the E. tarda strain followed by A. hydrophilla, C. freundii, P. mirabilis, and S. enterica. Interestingly, all the bacterial species except E. tarda were showing high multiple antimicrobial resistance (MAR) index values ranging from 0.36 to 0.91 upon the 11 antibiotics tested although they were sensitive to LGO.

Antibacterial activity of essential oil from lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) against pet turtle-borne pathogenic bacteria / 한국실험동물학회지

Pet turtles are well-known to harbor an array of bacterial pathogens which can cause zoonotic infections in humans as well as opportunistic infections in the turtles itself. Essential oils are the natural plant extracts which have been traditionally used for disease treatment. In the present study, the essential oil of lavender (EOL) was examined for its antibacterial activity against thirty-eight strains of turtle-borne pathogenic bacteria belonging to seven species; Aeromonas hydrophila, A. caviae, A. dhakensis, Citrobacter freundii, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enterica and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibacterial activity of EOL was tested by means of disk diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests. In addition, the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of 11 commonly used antimicrobials was examined and the multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index was calculated. The results revealed that EOL was active against all tested turtle-borne pathogenic bacteria except P. aeruginosa. The range of MIC and MBC values of EOL against isolates except P. aeruginosa were recorded as 0.5-1% (V/V) and 0.5-2% (V/V), respectively. The MBC/MIC ratio was detected as <4, revealing that the tested EOL was bactericidal. Besides, most of the isolates were resistant to different antimicrobials in antimicrobial disk diffusion test. MAR index values of the tested strains were ranging from 0.27 to 0.91. The outcomes indicate that EOL has a potential to be used as an antibacterial agent against pathogenic bacteria isolated from pet turtles.

Conocimiento popular y perspectivas de conservación sobre las tortugas continentales en la parte baja del río la miel(colombia) / Popular knowledge and conservation perspectives on the inland turtles at the lower part of la miel river(colombia)

La parte baja de la cuenca del río La Miel está ubicada al nororiente del departamento de Caldas y alberga cinco de las especies de tortugas continentales registradas para Colombia. Durante mayo a septiembre de 2014 se recopiló información mediante la aplicación de un cuestionario semiestructurado a 101 residentes de la cuenca hidrográfica, acerca del conocimiento y uso de las tortugas (alimento, comercio y mascota) en la zona. La encuesta incluyó información personal de acuerdo con el sexo, ocupación principal (ama de casa, pescador/lanchero, agricultor/jornalero, mayordomo), tipo de habitante (nativos, extranjeros) y conocimiento y uso de las tortugas. Los resultados sugieren que las tortugas de agua dulce en la zona de estudio, se han reducido debido a una aparente larga historia de utilización por el hombre; principalmente para alimento, uso como mascotas y ocasionalmente por el comercio. Sin embargo, estos datos también sugieren que a pesar del impacto humano el río La Miel podría concentrar un número alto de tortugas a lo largo de la cuenca, lo que resalta la importancia de este sistema acuático como uno de los hábitats más importantes para la conservación de las tortugas de agua dulce en el país. Asimismo, los resultados muestran algunas relaciones relevantes hombre-fauna silvestre, que pueden ser utilizadas para avanzar en nuevos esfuerzos hacia la gestión de la conservación de las tortugas de agua dulce bajo un contexto local y nacional.

The lower part of La Miel River, located at the north-east of the Department of Caldas, hosts five Colombian inland turtle species. Information about knowledge and turtles' use (for food, trade, or pets) was recorded using a semi-structured questionnaire applied to 101 watershed residents, from May to September 2014. The survey included personal, knowledge, and use information accordingly to sex, principal work (housewife, fisherman/boatman, farmer/laborer, steward) and inhabitant type (native, foreign). Our results suggest that freshwater turtles in the study area have declined due an apparent long history of human consumption; mainly for food, pet, and occasionally for trade. However, these data also suggest that despite human impact, La Miel River could support a large number of turtles along the basin, underscoring the importance of this aquatic system as one of the most important habitats for the conservation of freshwater turtles in the country. In addition, our results illustrate some relevant human-wildlife relationships, which can be used to advance new efforts toward freshwater turtle management under local and national context.

Multilocus sequence typing analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from pet Chinese stripe-necked turtles (Ocadia sinensis) / 한국실험동물학회지

Our research sought to characterize the phylogeny of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from pet Chinese stripe-necked turtles (Ocadia sinensis) to better understand its evolutionary relation to other isolates and increase understanding of a potential zoonotic pathogen transmitted through direct contact with pet turtles. Thirty-one Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates were obtained from both immature and adult turtles sold in pet shops in Korea. To characterize the phylogenic position of Chinese stripe-necked turtle-borne P. aeruginosa relative to other strains, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis was performed due to the accessibility and breadth of MLST databases. Seven housekeeping genes (acsA, aroE, guaA, mutL, nuoD, ppsA, and trpE) were sequenced and the results were compared with data from the MLST database. The genes were further used for phylogenetic analysis of P. aeruginosa using concatenated gene fragments. Both rooted and unrooted phylogenetic trees were generated. Eleven distinct sequence types were present within the isolates among which seven were new. Expanding an unrooted phylogenetic tree to include P. aeruginosa MLST sequences isolated from various other geographic locations and sources revealed a divergent cluster containing the majority of isolates obtained from turtles. This suggests that P. aeruginosa strains particularly well-adapted for inhabiting turtles occupy a distinct phylogenetic position.

Prevalence of Salmonella spp. in pet turtles and their environment / 한국실험동물학회지

Pet turtles are known as a source of Salmonella infection to humans when handled in captivity. Thirty four turtles purchased from pet shops and online markets in Korea were examined to determine whether the turtles and their environment were contaminated with Salmonella spp. Salmonella spp. were isolated from fecal samples of 17 turtles. These isolates were identified as S. enterica through 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The isolation rate of Salmonella spp. from the soil and water samples increased over time. We concluded that a high percentage of turtles being sold in pet shops were infected with Salmonella spp., and their environments tend to become contaminated over time unless they are maintained properly. These results indicate that pet turtles could be a potential risk of salmonellosis in Korea.

Impact of jaguar Panthera onca(Carnívora: Felidae) predation on marine turtle populations in Tortuguero, Caribbean coast of Costa Rica / Efecto de la depredación por jaguares, Panthera onca (Carnívora: Felidae), sobre las poblaciones de tortugas marinas de Tortuguero, costa caribeña de Costa Rica

Little is known about the effects of jaguars on the population of marine turtles nesting in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. This study assessed jaguar predation impact on three species of marine turtles (Chelonia mydas, Dermochelys coriáceaand Eretmochelys imbricata)that nest in Tortuguero beach. Jaguar predation data was obtained by using two methodologies, literature review (historical records prior the year 2005) and weekly surveys along the 29 km stretch of beach during the period 2005-2013. Our results indicated that jaguar predation has increased from one marine turtle in 1981 to 198 in 2013. Jaguars consumed annually an average of 120 (SD= 45) and 2 (SD= 3) green turtles and leatherbacks in Tortuguero beach, respectively. Based on our results we concluded that jaguars do not represent a threat to the population of green turtles that nest in Tortuguero beach, and it is not the main cause for population decline for leatherbacks and hawksbills. Future research should focus on continuing to monitor this predator-prey relationship as well as the factors that influence it so the proper management decisions can be taken.

Existe poco conocimiento sobre el impacto que tienen los jaguares sobre las tortugas marinas que anidan en el Parque Nacional Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Este estudio evaluó el impacto de la depredación de jaguar sobre tres especies de tortugas marinas (Chelonia mydas, Dermo-chelys coriáceay Eretmochelys imbricata)que anidan en Tortuguero. Los reportes de depredación fueron obtenidos empleando dos metodologías, revisión literaria (eventos registrados antes del 2005) y monitoreos semanales a lo largo de la playa (durante el periodo 2005-2013). La depredación del jaguar se ha incrementado de una tortuga en 1981 a 198 tortugas en 2013. Asimismo, los jaguares consumieron anualmente un promedio de 120 (SD= 45) y 2 (SD= 3) tortugas verdes y tortugas baula en Tortugue-ro, respectivamente. Nuestros resultados indican que los jaguares no representan una amenaza para la población de tortugas verdes que anida en Tortuguero, y no son la causa principal de la disminución poblacional de la tortuga baula y carey. No obstante, se recomienda continuar con el monitoreo con el fin de entender cómo esta interacción depredador-presa evolucionará en el futuro.